A. Syllabus
1. Common characteristics of a syllabus:
· Consists of a comprehensive list of:
Content items (words, structure, topics); Process items (tasks, methods).· Is ordered (easier, more essential items first).
· Has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction).
· Is a public document.
· May indicate a time schedule.
· May indicate a preferred methodology or approach.
· May recommend materials.
2. Different types of language syllabus
· Grammatical
· Lexical
· Grammatical-lexical
· Situational
· Topic-based
· Notional
· Functional-notional
· Mixed or ‘multi-strand’
Explanation:
a. Grammatical:
A list of grammatical structures, such as the present tense, comparison of adjectives, relative clauses, usually divided into section graded according to difficulty and/or importance.
b. Lexical:
A list of lexical items (girl, boy, go away...) with association collocations and idioms, usually divided into graded sections.
c. Grammatical-lexical:
A very common kind of syllabus: both structure and lexis are specified: either together, in sections that correspond to the units of a course, or into separate lists.
d. Situational:
These syllabuses take the real life contexts of language use as their basis: sections would be headed by names of situations or locations such as ‘Eating a meal’ or ‘In the street’.
e. Topic-based:
This is rather like the situational syllabus, except that the headings are broadly topic-based, including things like ‘Food’, or ‘The Family’; this usually indicates a fairly clear set of vocabulary items, which may be specified.
f. Notional:
‘Notions’ are concepts that language can express. General notions may include ‘number’, for example, or ‘time’, ‘place’, ‘color’; specific notions look more like vocabulary items: ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘afternoon’.
g. Functional-notional:
Functions are things you can do with language, as distinct from notion you can express: examples are ‘identifying’, ‘denying’, ‘promising’. Purely functional syllabuses are rare: usually both functions and notions are combined.
h. Mixed or ‘multi-strand’:
Increasingly, modern syllabuses are combining different aspects in order to be maximally comprehensive and helpful to teachers and learners; in these you may find specifications of topics, tasks, functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary.
B. Material
1. How necessary is a course book?
In favor of using a course book:
· Framework
· Syllabus
· Ready-made texts and tasks
· Economy
· Convenience
· Guidance
· Autonomy
Explanation:
a. Framework:
A course book provides a clear framework: teachers and learners know where they are going and what is coming next, so that there is a sense of structure and progress.
b. Syllabus:
In many places the course book serves as a syllabus: if it is followed systematically, a carefully planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered.
c. Ready-made texts and tasks:
The course book provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his or her own.
d. Economy:
A book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner: alternatives, such as kits, sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount of material provided.
e. Convenience:
A book is a convenience package. It is bound, so that its components stick together and stay in order; it is light and small enough to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is easily packed and stacked; it does not depend for its use on hardware or a supply of electricity.
f. Guidance:
For teachers who are inexperience or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the language, the course book can provide useful guidance and support.
g. Autonomy:
The learner can use the course book to learn new material, review and monitor progress with some degree of autonomy. A learner without a course book is more teacher-dependent.
2. Course book assessment
As a teacher, it is worth thinking about how you recognize a good course book when you see one, and on what grounds you might reject or criticize it. Here are some guidelines against using a course book.
a. Inadequacy:
Every class – in fact, every learner – has their own learning needs: no one course book can possibly supply these satisfactorily.
b. Irrelevance, lack of interest:
The topics dealt with in the course book may not necessarily be relevant or interesting for the class.
c. Limitation:
A course book is confining: its set structure and sequence may inhibit a teacher’s initiative and creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the part of the learners.
d. Homogeneity:
Course books have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning approach. They do not usually cater for the variety of levels of ability and knowledge, or of learning styles and strategies that exist in most classes.
e. Over-easiness:
Teachers find it too easy to follow the course book uncritically instead of using their initiatives; they may find themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers in their own right.
CRITERIA FOR COURSEBOOK ASSESSMENT
| Importance | Criterion | |
| | Objectives explicitly laid out in an introduction, and implemented in the material | |
| | Approach educationally and socially acceptable to target community | |
| | Clear attractive layout: print easy to read | |
| | Appropriate visual material available | |
| | Interesting topics and tasks | |
| | Varied topics and tasks, so as to provide for different learner levels, learning styles and interest, etc. | |
| | Clear instructions | |
| | Systematic coverage of syllabus | |
| | Content clearly organized and graded (sequence by difficulty | |
| | Periodic review and test sections | |
| | Plenty of authentic language | |
| | Good pronunciation explanation and practice | |
| | Good vocabulary explanation and practice | |
| | Good grammar presentation and practice | |
| | Fluency practice in all four skills | |
| | Encourages learners to develop own learning strategies and to become independent in their learning | |
| | Adequate guidance for the teacher; not too heavy preparation load | |
| | Audio cassettes | |
| | Readily available locally | |
| @ Cambridge University Press 1996 | ||
| COURSEBOOK COVERAGE · Pronunciation practice · Introduction of new vocabulary and practice · Grammar explanation and practice · Recording of listening practice · Listening and speaking of communicative tasks · Reading and writing communicative tasks · Mixed-skills communicative tasks · Short and long reading texts · Dictionary work · Review of previously learned material · Some entertaining and fun activities @ Cambridge University Press 1996 |
C. Topic content
The topic content of courses refers to topics the language talks about, as distinct from the language content itself and it may be of various types. Some main ones are shown below.
| TYPES OF NON-LINGUISTIC CONTENT 1. Zero or trivial content: Bland, fairly neutral characters and events, or superficially interesting topics with no cultural or other information or engagement with real world issues. For example: sentences about fictional ‘John and Mary’ doing everyday activities; stereotype family stories; many pop songs; trivial anecdotes; ‘soap opera’ style narrative or video. 2. The language: Aspect of English treated as topics of study in themselves: its history, for example, etymology or morphology. 3. Another subject of study: Other subjects on the school or university curriculum, such as science or history, taught through the medium of the foreign language. 4. Home culture: Discussions of institutions, people, places, events, writing, etc. pertaining to the learners’ own culture. For example, Greek learners might discuss places they would recommend that tourists should visit in Greece. 5. Culture associated with the English language: Discussions of institution, etc. pertaining to the English-speaking people. Material for learners might take as topics, for example, the American Civil War, or British social customs. 6. English literature: In a sense a part of (5) above, but important enough to warrant a separate heading: stories, novels, plays, poetry written in English. 7. World or general knowledge: Culture or literature that is known in many countries, such as some folk tales, the Bible; geographical, historical or political information about any part of the world; general scientific or philosophical topics. 8. Moral, educational, political or social problems: Content that presents, or requires the participants to take, a stance on some issue: for example, a dilemma to which learners suggest a solution. 9. The learners themselves: Exploration of learners’ own experiences, knowledge, opinions and feelings: for example: activities that ask learners to write about someone they know, or compare tastes in food or drink. @ Cambridge University Press 1996 |
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